The Impact during Classical Puranic Hinduism period, circa 500-1500 CE

कामम् क्राेधम् लाेभम् माेहम् त्यक्तवात्मानम् भाव्यम् काेहम्।

आत्मज्ञानम् विहीनामूढाः ते पत्यन्ते नरकनिगूढाः ।।

 Give up lust, anger,infatuation and greed. Ponder over your real nature. Fools are they, who are blind to the self; cast into hell, they suffer endlessly. ---- Text 27, Bhaja Govindam, Adi Sankara )

Classical Puranic  Hinduism period generally refers to the timeline circa 450 CE to 1400 CE.  Several religious and spiritual philosophers impacted the ethical thinking of the society during this period. But the greatest impact on Dharma and Ethical living was felt on the basis of teachings of  FIVE GREAT SPIRITUAL PHILOSOPHERS of this period namely;

• Sri Adi Sankara (788-820 CE), exponent of KEVALA ADVAITA/ uncompromising MONISM, philosophy of oneness/ not two Brahman& Self.

• Sri Ramanuja ( circa 1017-1137 CE ), exponent of VISISHTADVAITA or Qualified MONISM. 

• Sri Nimbarkacharya ( circa 1130-1200 CE ), exponent of DVAITADVAITA  or BHEDA-BHEDA-VADA, professing duality and individuality at the same time. 

• Sri Madhavacharya ( circa 1288-1317 CE ), exponent of STRICT DVAITISM or Dvaita Vada. 

• Sri Vallabhacharya ( circa 1479-1531 CE ), exponent of SUDDHADVAITA VADA or pure MONISM and founder of Push-ti sect.

Some more names of this period like that of Sri Gandapadacharya ( circa 700 CE ), of Advaita philosophy & generally referred as Guru  of Adi Sankara, need worth mentioning for their contribution towards spreading the message of Dharma and  Ethical thinking. During the same period, Buddhism continued to grow and diversify itself into Zen- Buddhism & allied religious areas.

SUFISM, originated in circa 800-900 CE, prominently in Basra, Kufa & Baghdad, Egypt, a few more places in middle east & Persia,sometimes referred as a mystical movement, focused on love relationship with God leading to intimate experience of God & finally to a total union with God. Several  Sufi ascetics and philosophers continued to impact the society on Dharma and Ethical living. While we shall cover the messages prophesied by the 5 great philosophers from Adi Sankara to Sri Vallabhacharya in this blog, the learnings  on Dharma & Ethical living from  Sufi  ascetics shall be covered in next blog.

The philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, prophesied by Adi Shankaracharya is based on sacred texts of Upanishads, Bhagwat Gita & Brahmsutras.

Brahma, Satyam, Jagan mithya ; Jivo, Brahmaiva napara.( Vivek Chudamani ) ie. Brahman is reality, the universe is an illusion, the living being is Brahman alone and none else. Going a step further, it conveys that Jiva or individual soul is not different from Brahman, who is full, infinite, changeless, self-existent, self-delight, self-knowledge and self-bliss. It is SVARUPA ( essence), NIRAKARA( formless), SEER( drashta), TRANSCENDENT( turiya) and SILENT WITNESS( saakshi). Adi Sankara cleansed the Vedic Religious practices of ritualistic excesses by transforming these into acceptable Ethical practices. Dharma and Ethical thinking in society underwent a big boost thru

1.  His commentaries on Brahmsutras called Brahmasutrabhashya and Bhaja-Govindam-- a devotional poem in praise of Lord Krishna besides the famous Sanskrit poem cum dialogue between Master & Disciple " Vivek Chudamani ", focusing on developing VIVEKA, the human faculty of discrimination as the central requirement of  ETHICAL LIVING & spiritual life. discrimination between REAL & UNREAL frees us from the bondage of ignorance and delusion.
2. Establishment of FOUR MUTTS in four corners of India, called Jyothirmutts to serve spiritual needs of ascetic community within Vedantic tradition.

Quoting a few relevant verses from Bhaja Govindam;
भजगोविन्दम् भजगोविन्दम्, गोविन्दम् भज मूढमते । Text 34.
सत्सन्गत्वे निस्स्ञगत्वम् निस्स्ञगत्वे निर्मोहत्वम् ।
निर्मोहत्वे निश्र्चलतत्वम् निश्र्चलतत्वे जीवन्मुक्ति ।। Text 9. It means one should engage in Sat-sang, which takes one towards non attachment to material world, freedom from delusion, leading to Self- Settledness and finally liberation. Text 31 of Bhaja Govindam conveys a few Ethical  practices;

प्राणायामम् पृत्याहारम् नित्यानित्य विवेक विचारम्  । It means that for Ethical  Living, one should regulate Parana, remain unaffected by external influences, discriminate between real and fleeting, think good and pious as well as develop internal peace by silencing turbulent mind. His teachings were a great source of inspiration for the society in leading an Ethical life. His stress on acquiring Knowledge as an vital means of Ethical living can be visualized thru some of these verses of Brahmasutrabhashya.

शास्त्रयोनित्वात् --1.1.3 ie Brahman is realizable only thru acquiring knowledge of sacred scriptures.
तदनुग्रहेतुकेनेव हि ज्ञानेन माेक्षसिदिध्भर्वितुमर्हति ।। -- 2.3.41 ie the attainment of Moksha or liberation is possible indeed thru the knowledge or Gyana, with the grace of Ishwara.

  Vivek Chudamani , specifically states 6 virtues of SELF CONTROL as the ETHICAL FOUNDATION of Spiritual Life.These are (a) Sama, the tranquil state of mind, constantly zeroed on contemplation of the goal after detaching it from myriad sense objects (b)Dama, steering the sense organs of knowledge & action away from their sense objects (c) Uparati, self withdrawal of thought waves, free from the influences of external objects (d) Titiksha, forbearance or the capacity to endure all sorrows/ sufferings without struggling for revenge/ redressal (e) Samadhana, one pointedness towards total contemplation of the ever pure Brahman or concentration of the mind on TRUTH (f) Sraddha, active faith in the Masters and spiritual scriptures. Quoting two verses from this scripture which had enormous impact on ETHICAL LIVING at that time;

सत्यम ज्ञानभनन्तम् ब्रह्म विशुद्धम परम् स्वतः सिद्धम् ।
नित्यानन्दैकरसम् प्रत्यगभिन्नम् निरन्तरम् जयति ।।        ( verse 225 )
It conveyed that BRAHMAN is Existence-- Knowledge-- Absolute, extremely pure, supreme, self existing, eternal, indivisible bliss, not essentially different from inner most self and absolutely without parts.
अहमकारग्रहान्मुक्तः स्वरूपमुपपघते, चन्द्रवदिध्मलः पूर्ण सदानन्दः स्वयमप्रभः ( verse 300) ie once freed from the shackles of EGO ( like moon freed from eclipse), one discovers his true real nature and becomes infinite, ever blissful and self effulgent.

All the five leading philosophers and preachers listed in the opening para agree that Brahman is the cause of the world and that knowledge of Brahman, mainly from spiritual scriptures leads to Moksha, the ultimate goal of life. They only differed in respect of nature of this Brahman, the state of the soul , the means of attaining Moksha  and its causality wrt the universe. Let me state a few distinct ideologies of the other four philosophers and their schools of thought.

According to Sri Ramanuja, Brahman is with attributes and endowed with auspicious qualities. The world and individual souls are essential real constituents of Brahman's nature. The individual soul remains a personality for ever and go thru a state of contraction during Pralay and expansion during Creation. For him, Bhakti is the chief means of final emancipation and not Gyana or knowledge.

  According to Sri Nimbarkacharya, Brahman is both Nirgun and Sagun. The universe is not unreal, but a true manifestation of Parinama of Brahman. The world is identical with and at the same time different with Brahman ( Bheda-Bheda-Vada), just as the water and bubble are same and different in many ways. As per him,there are three equally real and co-eternal realities--- Brahman or controller, CIT or enjoy-er and ACIT or the object enjoyed. The individual souls are part of supreme self, controlled by supreme being. The final salvation can be achieved by Bhakti and for him, the highest object of worship is Rad-ha- Krishna.

According to Sri Madhvacharya, Vishnu is the highest God, the world is real, all living being are dependent on Vishnu for their existence and salvation lies in the soul experiencing its intrinsic joy thru pure/ unsullied love of God. Further, the means of knowledge are sensory perception, inference and reading of holy scriptures.His focus on Strict Dvaitism had five primary elements.

• Jiva and Ishwara are different.
• Jivas and Jadas or non living things are different.
• Jada- Jada Bheda ie two in-animated things are different.
• Jiva-Jiva Bheda ie two Jivas are different.
• Ishwara-- Jada Bheda ie God and in-animate things are different.

According to Sri Vallabhacharya, the soul is  separate from God and realization of God is the ultimate aim of each soul. He established Push-ti Marg ( Push-ti meaning God's grace), another name for pure Bhakti. He had great faith in the Leelas of Lord Krishna--- the Supreme God and his Bhakti. His commentary SHRI BHASHYA has several ways and means for  achievement of this goal. He conveyed that one  should renounce Self- Pride and worldly affection and surrender everything at Lord Krishna's lotus feet.

To sum up the blog, let me state few points which emerge from analysis of these philosophies;

• While the Basic Gyana of Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmsutras, Bhagwat Gita and other spiritual scriptures continued to engross the human society at that time, yet its rationale and constructive criticism for its acceptance in ethical living continued to evolve. Focus also remained on gaining knowledge by reading of these scriptures and contact with learned Gurus.
• Realization of Brahman thru devotion to Lord Vishnu or Lord Krishna ( Bhakti movement) in order to achieve final salvation and merger of individual soul with Brahman gained momentum. Even Sufism, emerging during this period, had a clear inclination towards devotional path.
• Dharma and Ethical  thinking were greatly impacted by the preaching of these schools of thoughts, both thru the spiritual texts brought out by these philosophers as well as establishment of a few systems for society to follow.

Two relevant English translations/ interpretations of verses from Upanishads are reproduced below to end the blog;

" He who knows Brahman becomes Brahman"   III-2-9, Mundaka Upanishad.

"The wise who know the Atman as bodiless within the bodies, as unchanging among the changing things & as great and omniscient does never grieve"   II-22, Katha Upanishad.

Prominent Learnings from Golden Age of Hinduism II

Hinduism is an inheritance of thought and aspiration, living and moving with the movement of life itself. 
                                                                                        Dr S Radhakrishnan.                    

                                                                                                           
Continuing the thought flow from my earlier blog on major learnings from Golden age Of Hinduism or the period of Gupta empire, let me consolidate the threads on Dharma and ethical living during this period of around 500 BCE- 400 CE. During this period, people had religious freedom, generally people were pious and adhered to Dharma, which was considered to include meeting the requirements of  laws, performing prescribed duties and attempting to follow truth and morality in daily life. Societal norms prescribed eternal values such as honesty, mercy, purity and self restraint for leading an ethical life. This period galvanized Hindu synthesis and first Purana were written during this period.

Brahmanism with two branches Shaivism and Vaishnavism reigned supreme. Old Gods of Vedic period like Surya, Varuna and Indra receded into background and new Gods Prajapati( Brahma ), Vishnu and Mahesh came to the forefront. Since most of Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites, Vishnu became the central figure of worship.Vishnu Purana, a scripture of this period has scores of legends about Lord Vishnu, who was also worshiped as Vasudeva, Janardan and Gobind. Bhagwat Gita became the source of inspiration in this period.

 A code of Law called Vishnu Smriti, also known as DHARMASUTRAS was compiled for aiding both the KING and the Praja in their duties. It spelled out Rituals to be performed by an individual, Punishments for various offences ; Crimes & Penances like fasting, performing ablutions to get out of bad Karma's and crimes etc. Sanskrit language was patronized and several well known scholars flourished during this period. Kalidasa, the great Sanskrit poet & playwright, Vishakhadutta,  Harisena and Bharavi are few such names, who, with their poetry, playwright or lyrics, impacted Dharma as well as Ethical living in the society.

One of the Dharmic literature of around 400 CE titled ABHIDHARMA KOSHA by Vasubandhu on Satvastivadin Buddhism convey requirements of Ethical Living indirectly. It says that individuals are deluded by four evil desires of their views of Self as real, Ignorance of self, self pride and self love. He stressed on positive ethical mental requirements like belief, sense of shame, modesty, absence of coveting, energy, mental peace, equanimity and non injury. A few evil/ negative or unethical mental functions conveyed were hatred, attachment, arrogance, covetousness, false view, anger, enmity, concealment, envy, deception, fraud, pride, injury, high mindedness, disbelief, idleness, forgetfulness, distraction etc.

It is worth sharing a few Ethical Guidelines on DHARMA in a Tamil Classic 'The Kural' by Tiru Valluvar of around 400-500 CE (This Tamil Classic included 133 chapters covering traditional Hindu goals of  DHARMA, ART HA and KAMA.

• Sweet words with a smiling face are more pleasing than a gracious gift.
• Self Control takes one to the Gods, but its lack to utter darkness.
• Always forgive transgressions, but better still forget them.
• The height of wisdom is not to return ill for ill.
• Bear your pain and not pain others.
• Venegence even against a wanton insult does endless damage.
• Punish an evil doer by shaming him with a good deed and forget.
• Do not do to others what you know  has hurt yourself.
• Even at the cost of one's own life, one should avoid killing.
• The world is secure under one whose nature can make friends of foes.
• All virtues are said to be natural to those who acquire character as a duty.
• The pillars of excellence are love, modesty, altruism, compassion, humility and truthfulness.

Let me now share about a major stride in spreading Dharma and Ethical way of living during the period of Great Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in around 269 BCE in an innovative method of that times. These were known as " Set of Edicts or Dhamma ", a kind of generalized norms of social behaviors and expectations from people, which were a kind of direct communication on views of the Emperor with his subjects. Pillar Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts and Major Rock Edicts were placed at sites that were accessible to large no of people. Ashoka's policy of DHAMMA stressed social responsibility and his own commitment to Dharma & Way of living in society thru these edicts.

Though Ashoka himself, a Buddhist, he never imposed Buddhism on his subjects, which again speak of higher ethics. He also prophesied vegetarianism and stoppage of animal sacrifices as well as celebrations/ ceremonies which generally led to wastage, indiscipline and flow of superstitions. Rock Edicts conveyed all the above besides ethical messages like Tolerance  in life, Importance of maintaining unity, Shunning violence of all kinds, undertaking of Dharmayatras, Practicing morality, Behavior towards friends/ relatives, Observing respect towards Brahmins and seniors etc. He also recruited a new cadre of officers called DHAMMAMAHAMATTAS to implement his policies cited above. The famous ASHOKA CHAKRA is considered as the Wheel of Righteousness.

Shvetashvatara Upanishad, presumably composed by Sage Shvetashvatara in Mauryan period, in around 300 BCE, has several verses on Dharma and Ethical Living. Quoting verse 1, chapter 2;
प्रथमम् मनस्तत्वाय सविता धियम् । ie first harness the mind and the senses to realize the truth. In other words, purity of mind and a life of self control in accordance with rules of Righteousness  is essential for ethical living. Further verse 2, chapter 2 states;
युक्तेन मनसा वयम् देवस्य सवितुः सवे । सुवर्गेयाय शक्त्या ।।
With our minds controlled so as to manifest the self luminous soul, we shall vigorously endeavor for attainment of the supreme bliss.

Another verse 1, chapter 5 conveys  that IGNORANCE is the greatest enemy of practicing Ethical Living  and WISDOM leads to immortality. It further adds that Ethical living demands one to choose the path of DHARMA and GYANA or KNOWLEDGE and shun the path of  ADHARMA. There is a lot of focus  on role of  SELF in ETHICAL LIVING. Quoting verse 12, chapter 3;
महान प्रभुवै पुरूषम सत्यस्यैष प्रवतर्कः सुनिर्मलाभिमाम प्रापि्तमीशानो ज्योतिरव्ययः ।
It conveys that SELF is the mighty LORD. He is the imperishable light that controls everything. He guides the intellect of all beings so as to enable them to achieve the extremely pure state of MUKTI. The chapter 6 of this great text ends with the famous PEACE INVOCATION;

पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदम् पूर्णात् पूर्णमुदच्यते । पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पूर्णमेवावशिष्यते ।। It conveys that the whole universe has come out of whole BRAHMAN, WHO is always full. Ethical living demands faith in BRAHMAN, irrespective of the pressures of time.

Let me end the blog by conveying that this was a consolidation phase of Dharma as well as Ethical Living, besides implementation of several innovative ideas on spread of Dharma/ Ethical living like Edicts during Emperor Ashoka's rule. The next blog is planned to cover the period of Circa 500 CE to Circa 1200 CE, also referred as CLASSICAL PURANIC HINDUISM. To end, let us draw inspiration from the following Quotes on the period of Great Ashoka;

Beloved-of-the-Gods thinks that even those who do wrong should be  forgiven where forgiveness is  possible.
Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma---- little evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity.

Prominent learnings from Golden Age Of Hinduism--I

Hinduism insists not on religious conformity but on a spiritual and ethical outlook of life. Hinduism is not a sect but a fellowship of all who accept the law of right and earnestly look for the truth.

                                                      Dr S Radhakrishnan 

                                                                                                                                                                   The classical " Golden Age of Hinduism' refers  to close to the period of history, 400 BCE - 500 CE, more or less coinciding with the period of famous Gupta empire. We shall try to understand the  philosophies and messages propagated by  some of the prominent  philosophers of this period  restricting to my theme covering Dharma and Ethical living. Six orthodox schools, some extending the thoughts  of Vedas as well as Upanishads and while a few others questioning the contents of some of  these scriptures, flourished in this period. These schools of thoughts were namely Sankhya, Purva Mimansa, Uttara Mimansa or Vedanta, Nyaya, Vaiseshika and Yoga. We shall humbly examine some of the messages on Dharma and Ethical Living brought out by these schools of thoughts in this blog, which is 6th in the series.

The central aim of these schools of thoughts is elucidation or illumination on the nature of DHARMA, which at that point of time, was broadly understood as set of rituals, obligations as well as prerogatives to be performed properly. Brahmsutras of Shri Badarayana ( 500 BCE-400 BCE ) in Uttara Mimansa, were intended as memory aids to long discussions on several topics, including essence of relevant arguments and helped systematize the thoughts of Upanishads. It opens with a verse " ATHADO BRAHMA JIGNASA " ie. to focus on systematic exploration of Brahman. Several philosophers/ commentators including S/Sh Sankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja and others have clarified the subject on the basis of their understanding. As per Sh Sankara, Brahman is Attribute-less, Immutable and Pure Intelligence. However, to Sh Ramanuja and others, Brahman is an essentially personal God possessing infinite benign attributes. But, to all of them, Brahman, the world and the soul are all realities.

 However,Purva Mimansa Sutras of Sage Jamini ( 300-100 BCE ) projected DHARMA as closely associated with virtue, morality and duty. Jamini's Sutras begin with " ATHADO DHARMA JIGNASA " ie focusing on systematic examination or investigation of Dharma. In Jamini's philosophy, Dharma is Karma or the performance of rituals and tasks. It also established six methods of acquiring knowledge for the purpose of defining the notion of duty or Karma, namely Direct Perception ( पृत्यक्ष ) , Inference (अनुमान ), Analogy (उपमा ), Verbal Testimony(शब्द ), Hypothesis (परिकल्पना ) and knowledge by negation (अभाव ).

 My understanding and interpretation is that since Dharma is Karma, it needs to be performed effectively by proper use of knowledge. Even the negation ie what is not seen gives us inputs,  needs to be considered. Karma can not be stopped and so is the communication on what is right and what is wrong for the society. In fact, using knowledge through various means as stated above helped in  correct interpretation and understanding of Dharma.

Sankhya philosophy founded by Sage Kapila regards ignorance as the root cause of all suffering. Due to ignorance,one of the reality of universe, Purusha ( eternal, pure consciousness) identifies itself with Manas, Ego-sense and Ma-hat, which are products of the second reality of universe Prakarti. Such false identification leads to suppression of DHARMA in one's life and eventual progression towards unethical living.

Nyaya school of philosophy is explained in texts known as Nyaya Sutras of Sh A K Sapada Gautama in around 200 CE. While it also talked of four sources of knowledge to be used for Dharma based living namely Perception, Inference, Comparison and Testimony; it did talk of sources of invalid knowledge like Memory ( स्मृति), Doubt (सऩ्शय), Error (अशुद्धता) and Hypothetical reasoning (तर्क).  It emphasized on removal of false knowledge which supports growth of unethical living in society. Only true knowledge leads to salvation. Vaisheshika school founded by Sage Kannada considered Perception and Inference as the means of valid knowledge and over the centuries merged with Nyaya school of thought.

Yoga school was founded by Maharishi Patanjali and has a strong influence on Ethical Living. It talked of अष्टाऩ्ग योग, conveyed in verse 29  of ch 2, Sadhna Pada of Patanjali Yoga Sutras.

यमनियमासन प्राणायाम प्रत्याहारधारणाध्यान समाधयोष्टाव अऩ्गानि । ie यम, नियम,अासन, प्राणायाम, प्रत्याहार, धारणा, ध्यान, समाधि are the eight limbs of Yoga which help in purifying and strengthening of body. However,human beings throughout the universe, also face several hurdles in this path due to the weaknesses of the mind like Avid-ya ( wrong notions of the world ), Asmita ( wrong notions of one self ), Raga ( craving and attachment to sensory objects & affections), Dives-ha ( likes & hatred for objects/ persons and Abinivesha ( the love of life ). In order to spread the roots of Dharma and Ethical living, efforts thru introspection, acquiring knowledge and meditation be constantly made to eradicate these mental obstacles. Samadhi Pada Sutras 33-41 convey ways to cultivate attitudes of friendliness, compassion and calmness in-spite of one being in disturbed state.

Yama ( Ahimsa,, Truthfulness, Non Stealing, Non Lust and Aparigraha) and Niyama (Purity & Cleanliness, Contentment, Austerity, Study & Pursuit of knowledge and Devotion to Guru ) have been briefly explained by me in my first Blog titled " THE EVOLVING PATTERNS " for ETHICAL LIVING. Reinforcing these, let me quote verse 30-32 of Sadhna Pada of Patanjali Yoga Sutras.

अहिन्सासत्यास्ते य ब्रम्हचर्यापरिग्रहा यमाः ।ie non killing, truthfulness, non stealing, continence and non receiving are called Yamas.

जातिदेशकालसमयान वच्छिनाः सार्वन्भौमा महाव्रतम । ie for ethical living, every soul, irrespective of nation, country or status must practice these Yamas and Niyamas.

शौचसन्तोष तपः स्वाध्यायेश्र्वरप्रणिधानानि नियमाः । ie internal and external purification, contentment, mortification, self study of ethical scriptures including those on God are the Niyamas.

 Further, verse 36 of same Pada emphasize the importance of truthfulness for Ethical Living.

सत्यप्रतिष्ठयाम क्रियाफलाश्रयत्वम् । ie by practicing truthfulness, a person acquires the powers of realizing the fruits of KARMAS for himself and others. Another verse 42 of same Pada says;
सन्तोषाद् अनुत्तम  सुखलाभः ie from contentment, one gets happiness.

Verse 24 of Vibhuti Pada of Patanjali Yoga Sutra emphasize the importance of friendship.
मैत्रयादिषु बलानि । ie one gets strength by concentrating on good friendships in life.

Well, one can go on digging reservoirs of knowledge on Dharma and Ethical Living from these sacred scriptures written by eminent philosophers. While DHARMA, through and through, focused on performing duties and obligations or prescribed Karma s, Ethical living called for restraints and observations in life. These scriptures further strengthened the importance of acquiring knowledge, applying judicious discrimination and principles of justice for Dharma based ethical living. This was a very valuable period from ethical growth point of view . We shall throw some more light on the messages of some more philosophers of this Golden Period Of Hinduism in the next blog. Let me end the blog on a beautiful quote by Saint Dnyaneshwara , who preached universal Dharma with harmonious blend of Sadhna, Seva, Bhakti, Swadharma and Vishwadharma.

May the darkness of ignorant disappear,

May the universe see the sun of self consciousness,

May whatsoever aspirations of those be fulfilled,

Of all living beings.

Messages of Buddhism & Jainism

He who knows the nature of his self and understands how his senses act, will find no room for the "I" and will attain unending peace.  The world holds to the thought of I, from this arises false understanding. --------Buddhism                                                                                                      

Continuing the flow of thoughts from my earlier blogs ( the last one published on October 29, 2014 ), let me now humbly explore the Dharma and Ethical  living philosophy and concepts evolved during the period of great spiritual philosophers Siddharth Gautam Buddha, the founder of Buddhism during  560 BCE-- 480  BCE as well as Lord Mahavira, the founder of Jainism during 599 BCE--- 527 BCE. let us humbly ignore slight variations , if any, in the date of birth and nirvana of these two great philosophers of ancient past because of non availability of exact timeline and probably correct recording of historical texts.

DHARMA is one of the three  Jewels of Buddhism.

• Buddha--- meaning the mind's perfection of enlightenment.
• Dharma--- meaning the teachings and practices of Buddha.
• Sangha---- meaning those awakened beings who provide guidance and support to Buddhism.

Let me now quote one of the key philosophical principle of Buddhism.

Goodwill towards all beings is the true religion; cherish in your heart boundless goodwill to all that lives. Hatred never cease by hatreds in the world; by love alone, do they cease. This is an ancient law.Let us inspect our thoughts, that we do no evil, for as we sow, we shall reap.

The essence of Dharma and Ethical living flow abundantly from the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, which Buddha experienced at the time of his ENLIGHTENMENT. These are;

1. Life always experiences Suffering or DUKHA like encountering pain, loss, sickness or unsatisfied feelings.
2. Sufferings arise from Desires--- for meeting unending expectations and efforts towards self fulfillment.
3. Sufferings or DUKHA can be reduced by minimizing attachments to desires and changing our perception.
4. The way to cease suffering is to follow middle way, the noble EIGHT FOLD PATH---Right Understanding, Right Intent, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration.

Let me now explore a little more into Buddhist Philosophy for understanding desirable Ethical Actions for mankind. It projected KARMA as a dynamic concept and an on going process. New actions create new Karma and hence Ethical Actions and Thoughts act positively on future. Another thought process of Buddhism is that all Karmic Debts are settled in one's lifetime. Accordingly, Nirvana is to break free from the wheels of Samsara and achieving a state of ANANDA or BLISS. The Buddhist path requires courage, patience, flexibility and intelligence.

VIMALAKIRTI SUTRA, one of Buddhist sacred text gives TEN FOLD PERCEPTS for Ethical Living.  These are;
First Percept--- Abstinence from killing living beings.
Second Percept---Abstinence from stealing OR practicing honesty in all areas.
Third Percept--- Abstinence from sexual misconduct.
Fourth Percept--- Abstinence from falsehood OR being truthful.
Fifth Percept--- Abstinence from harsh speech.
Sixth Percept--- Abstinence from frivolous speech; only meaningful speech is desirable.
Seventh  Percept--- Abstinence from slanderous speech; only harmonious speech is desirable.
Eighth Percept--- Abstinence from greed.
Ninth Percept--- Abstinence from hatred.
Tenth Percept--- Abstinence from being self centered; belief in sharing knowledge.

Let me sum up the key learnings from Buddhism, relevant to my area of limited research, with the following two quotes from great Buddha;

Thousands of candles can be lighted from a single candle, and the life of the candle will not be shortened. Happiness never decreases by being shared.

Whatever words we utter should be chosen with care, for people will hear them and be influenced by them for good or ill.

Let me now move on to picking up relevant threads from another important religion JAINISM, which  flourished almost during the same period of founding of Buddhism. Jain DHARMA prescribes a path of NON-VIOLENCE towards all living beings and emphasizes spiritual independence and equality among all  forms of life.Quoting YOGASHASTRA, a Jain scripture of around 500 BCE ;

Non injury to all living beings is the only religion--- First TRUTH of Jainism. In happiness or suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our  own self and should therefore refrain from inflicting upon others such injury as would appear undesirable to us if inflicted upon ourselves.

The goal of Jain Dharma is complete perfection and purification of the soul. While the early foundation of a community based on abandonment of worldly concerns was laid by a great philosopher and renunciate teacher of around 700  BCE namely Shri Parshavanath, the 23rd Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira gave it a firm footing as a religion. The FIVE PRINCIPLES propagated by Lord Mahavira, the 24th and last  TIRTHANKAR, on Ethical living and Dharma are;

• AHIMSA or NON VIOLENCE in  all parts of a person, be it mental, verbal or physical; indirectly conveying compassion for all forms of life including those in plants, rivers, sand or stones. As per Lord Mahavira, there is no quality of soul more subtle than non violence and no virtue of spirit greater than reverence for life. His thoughts and action included restraint on  VIOLENT INTENTION as well as VIOLENT THOUGHT/SPEECH, because it probably led to anger, greed,  pride and jealousy--- the symbols of UNETHICAL LIVING. Controlling these may bring compassion, tolerance and forgiveness.
• ANEKANTVADA ( multiplicity of views )--- conveys that difference of viewpoints need to be heard since it adds to knowledge and builds tolerance. Though, perhaps, contested by some of his followers, yet, it is a valid principle even today , for the growth of an individual or a society.
• SATYA or truthfulness.
• APARIGRAHA ( non possessiveness)--- Non attachment to materials through self control, self imposed curtailment of one's needs, abstinence from over indulgence etc. ASTEYA or non stealing is another principle of Jainism with wider interpretation like honesty in every way of life--- honest in paying taxes, acquiring material things by honest means, honesty in behavior etc. In today's context too, it is a valid concept.
• BRAHMACHARYA ( chaste living )--- Though mostly followed in Jain monks, it is based on the belief that sexual indulgence  generally leads to unethical behavior and generation of Bad Karma s.

The ANUVRATAS ( little vows ), GUNAVRATAS and SHIKSHAVRATAS in Jainism primarily include abstinence from violence, falsehood, stealing and to be content with limited material possessions. Jainism has , however, never compromised on the principle of non violence. Its HOLY TEXT " Tattvartha Sutra ' sums it up in the phrase " Parasparopagraho Jivanam ", which means that  all life is mutually supportive. Jains are also strict vegetarians, consuming only one sensed beings, primarily from plant kingdom. Jainism also advocated its people to lead an AUSTERE life, in such a way that their JIVA ( Soul) does not pick up any more Karma and it only wipes out old Karma s. For this goal, ETHICAL JAIN LIFE advocated the path of strict asceticism, renunciation and moral cultivation. The three jewels of Lord Mahavira's philosophy had been Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. Let me sum up key learnings by a quote from Jainism.

Vatthu Sahavo dhammo--- the Dharma is the nature of an object. It is the nature of the soul to be free. For the soul, Dharma is  PARALAUKIKA, beyond worldly.  It is the nature of the body to seek self preservation and will be engaged in pleasures. For the body, Dharma is LAUKIKA, worldly.

Many important lessons emerge from both Buddhism and Jainism religions, considering Dharma and Ethical living. A few key learnings include non violence, abstinence from falsehood, honesty, right intent, right thoughts, right speech, right action, abstinence from greed and hatred, belief in sharing knowledge, non possessiveness from material world thru self control, self imposed curtailment of desires & needs, chaste living and moral cultivation. We shall  weave some of these principles into a template/ pattern of Ethical Living later after some more understanding onto how these have been evolved over past 4000 years or so.

Let me sum up the blog  by a famous quote from Swami Vivekananda on these two religions;

The Buddhists or the Jains do not depend upon God; but the whole force of their religion is directed to the great central truth in every religion to evolve a GOD out of a man.

Vedic & Upanishad Era Interpretations III ( learnings from Mahabharata & Bhagwat Gita)

यदा यदा हि धर्मस्य ग्लानिभर्वति भारत, अभ्युत्थानम् धर्मस्य तदात्मानम सृजाम्यहम् ।।
                                                            ( Lord Krishna to Arjuna in chapter 4 of Srimad Bhagwat Gita )

Continuing my thought flow from earlier blogs on this theme, the last being of September 26, 2014, let me now explore the vast ocean of knowledge ,relevant to my theme, from two great spiritual scriptures " The Mahabharata " and " Srimad Bhagwat Gita". Dharma has been generally considered as SUSTAINER ( based on original purpose of Dharma defined in VEDAS ) since the primary goal of Mahabharata war was to build a JUST SYSTEM for the society consistent with its HOLISTIC WELL BEING. Quoting verse 11, chapter 109, Shantiparva as to what Grand-sire Bhishma told Yudhishtra, on being asked;

धराणाद धर्ममित्याहुधर्मेण विघृता प्रजाः, यः स्याद् धारणसन्युक्तः स धर्म इति निश्रचय ।।

Dharma is one which sustains, nourishes and protects the society. Dharma is also one which protects one's life and saves one from degradation in values of life. In another context, Grand-sire Bhishma conveys the importance of TRUTHFULNESS in relation to DHARMA ( quoting verse 4, chapter 162, Shantiparva) ;

सत्यम् सत्सु सदाधर्मः सत्यम् धर्मः सनातनः। meaning thereby that TRUTH alone is Sanatana Dharma and Ethical people over the ages have always followed TRUTHFULNESS as the principle of Dharma. At yet another place, in chapter 296, Shantiparva, the principles of Dharma and Ethics have been interwoven under the overall umbrella of Dharma , covering all four Varnas  so as to include Compassion, Non Violence, Truthfulness, carefulness, Hospitality towards guests, Non-lust, Purity and Piousness, Absence of Anger, Atma Gyana, Forgiveness, Charity and Dana, Tolerance and Non Observance/ Non focusing on other's weaknesses.

In Mahabharata, even Lord Krishna seems to be UNETHICAL in many situations while advising Pandavas on Dharma. The conflict gets justified within the overall framework of cherished goal of building a JUST SOCIETY. Even PRECEPTS OF MORALITY seems diluted within overall framework of WELFARE OF MANKIND.Lord Krishna emphasized on both SVADHARMA ( the obligations of one's Dharma which in case of Arjuna-- Kshatriya Dharma) as well as SADHARMA,the universal obligation of one for the world. Quoting verse 31, 33 and 47, chapter 26, Bheesmparva and Bhagwat Gita, chapter II, in which Lord Krishna advises Arjuna on SVADHARMA;

स्वधर्ममपि चावॆक्ष्य न विकम्पितुमहर्सि। धर्मयार्द्धि युद्धाच्छॆयोन्यत् क्षत्रियस्य न विघतॆ।।

For a Kshatriya, Dharmayudha is bigger than any other duty. He should remember SVADHARMA. in verse 33, Lord conveys that if he does not fight for Dharmayudha, he will lose his SVADHARMA and respect in society. The famous verse 47 of same chapter strengthens this viewpoint;

कर्मण्यॆ वाधिकारस्तॆ मा फलॆषु कदाचन। मा कर्मफल हॆतुभूर्मा तॆ सङ्गोस्तव कर्मणि ।।

One's right is limited to selflessly devotedly carrying out his assigned tasks ( Karma's) without focusing on expected results. Lord Krishna conveys that every person engaged in his own duties as per his VARNA attains to perfection.Performing the prescribed duties , as per one's nature, incurreth no sin.

On SADHARMA, or universal Dharma, there are several verses in Mahabharata stating the interpretation and importance of Dharma and Ethical living. Let me quote a few notable ones from Chapter 92,Vaishnava Dharma Parva of Ashvamedhic Parva-- verse 32, 33 & more, conveyed by Lord Krishna to Yudhishtra;

धर्मः पिता च माता च धर्मोनाथः सुहृत् तथा। धर्मो भ्राता सखा चैव धर्मः स्वामी परन्तप।।

Dharma is one's father, mother,protector, well wisher, brother, friend and master.Further verses convey that only by practicing Dharma, one can obtain everything in this world . न हि धर्मानुरक्तमा लोकॆ किन्चन दुर्लभम्।ie. nothing is impossible in this world for those who respect and practice Dharma and live an ethical life.Lord also conveyed that Dharma always wins and not Adharma, truth wins and not falsehood.Forgiveness wins and not anger.  ETHICAL LIVING DEMANDS ACCEPTANCE OF THESE PRINCIPLES. In another context, the great VIDUR replies to king Dhritrashtra--  ref verse 12 & 13, chapter 40, Udyog Parva;

न जातु कामानभयान लोभाद्। धर्म जहनाजीवित स्यापि हॆतोः।।

Never, never, leave Dharma  because of desires, fear, greed or even one's life.

नित्यो धर्मः सुख दुखॆ त्व नित्यॆ। meaning thereby that Dharma alone is constant. Happiness as well as sorrow are only variables and will not stay for ever.  One should establish himself in CONSTANT and leave VARIABLES. In another verse 25, chapter 42, Udyog Parva, Rishi Sanatkumar answers the query of king Dhritrashtra that Dharma destroys Evil and पाप. He further reinforced this interpretation by saying that Dharma is highly powerful and regular practicing of Dharma leads to achievement of perfection.

On SARVAHITKARI DHARMA, Lord Krishna conveys to Yudhishtra in Vaishnavdharma Parva that Ahimsa, Pavitrata, Non-anger, Non cruelty, San-yam-- self control, simplicity and mental peace are indicators of Dharma;

अहिन्सा शाैचम् क्रोध मानृशमस्य़ दमः शमः। आजर्वम चैव राजेन्द्र निश्चिन्तम धर्मलक्षणम्।।

On being asked further, Lord conveyed that Forgiveness is the biggest Ethical requirement for entire mankind. Whether someone respects or disrespects, adores or ignores, abuses or threatens--- one should remain in the forgiveness mode all the time and in all situations.

क्षमा यश क्षमा दान क्षमा यज्ञ क्षमा दमः। क्षमा हिन्सा क्षमा धर्मः क्षमा चॆन्दि्रयनिग्रहः।।

Another important ethical requirement quoted by Lord Krishna is Pavitrata.

मन शौच कर्म शौच कुल शौच च भारत। शरीर शौच वाक्शौच शौचम पन्चविधम स्म्रतम।।

Our innermost body, heart, mind, actions, speech as well as outer body should be Pure and free from impurities. Interweaving all the above , a beautiful verse 15, chapter 113, Udyog parva conveys requirements from GOOD CONDUCT in society.

आचारः फलतॆ धर्मभाचारः फलतॆ धनम्। आचारचिछ्रयमाप्नोति आचारो हन्त्यलक्षणम्।।

it is good conduct or ethical conduct alone which leads to success of Dharma. It is again good conduct which brings prosperity and wealth. Again good conduct destroys all bad omens in one's life and society.
In Mahabharata, because of several conflicts and ethical dilemmas, at many places the idea of JUSTICE in relation to  DHARMA appear to be subjective. In these situations, one of the character is committed to two or more moral obligations and he can not fulfill one without violating his duty  or DHARMA to the other.

 To quote a few examples-- (a) Bhishma's error in thoughtlessly bringing 3 daughters of Kashi King for his younger brother VICHITRAVEERA and abandoning one of them AMBA who becomes cause of his death (b) Bhishma renouncing kingdom but is so blinded by his pride in his own RIGHTEOUSNESS & in being the guardian to the throne of HASTINAPUR , sliding into dependency and losing his capacity to oppose immorality & injustice in-spite of his WISDOM and (c) Kunti in not acknowledging Karna as her son and by the time she reveals the truth to him, it is too late (d) Guru DRONA's blind affection towards his son ASHVATHAMA and to the throne of HASTINAPUR that in-spite of his great wisdom, he overlooked Dharma and immorality.

 Mahabharata also sees characters struggling with moral dilemmas as they reach their own TRUTH whether consciously or unconsciously ( on many occasions Svadharma taking lead over Sudharma). At several places, it appears that there is no Universal Dharma. Lord Krishna appeared like a symbol of morality for establishing Righteous World Order. Though appeared unethical at some places, yet he ensured social order and harmony for overall benefit of the mankind. Verse 4 & 5, chapter 109, Shanti Parva convey the emphasis on SATYA and ASATYA, given by Grand-sire Bheeshma ;

सत्यस्य वचन साधु न सन्याद् विघतॆ परम् ie that there is no bigger Dharma than speaking truth but------------------
भवॆत सत्यम न वक्तव्यम वक्तव्यमनृतम भवॆत। यत्रानृतम भवॆत सत्यम् सत्यम् वाप्यनृतम भवॆत्।।

 Where a lie works as SATYA by saving one's life OR a truth puts one's life in danger--- in these circumstances, one should not speak truth, it is better to tell a lie. In Mahabharata, such practice has been given a new name "APADDHARMA " ie a form of DHARMA and ETHICAL PRACTICES that change based on specific situations but are only appropriate in Emergency situations.

Well, the lessons from Mahabharata and Srimad Bhagwat Gita are many and can not be summed up in one blog. Yet, on Dharma and Ethical Living, a few specific relevant learnings emerge;

SVADHARMA--- even relevant today in a limited context of a religion/ community.May be, some not so relevant Dharmas referred in Mahabharata  namely Rajdharma, Prajadharma, Mitradharma, Kuladharma, Jatidharma, Varnadharma etc need to be given low priority. Svadharma is relevant for most of us but its blind & orthodox method of practice may be dangerous for the society.

SUDHARMA-- Universal Dharma--It is the foundation of any good society.

APADDHARMA-- needs to be examined for relevancy, yet there are some valid points in it. In emergent situations and for the sake of overall goals, some seemingly ethical practices may have to be put in abeyance. Yet , to what extent and what will be the emergent situations are all aspects where the society has to frame guidelines. Let us not forget that irrespective of all the ethical practices, Dharma , finally is the welfare of all creations, a code of conduct for Righteous Behavior of mankind.

Next, the Ethical Ingredients from Mahabharata can be summed up as follows (still evolving---------------)
Truth, Non Violence, Self-control, contentment, Forgiveness, Pavitrata, Agreeable speech, Good Behavior, Regard for Elders, Hospitality to Guests, Endeavor ( Udyog), Protecting a Supplicant( saranagataraksha) and Sense of Sacrifice. There may be several modifications to this list as we progress further. My next one or two blogs will cover learnings from Jainism and Buddhism, limited to my area of theme, and to the best of my understanding.

Let me end this blog by another quote on Dharma and Ethics from sacred scripture Srimad Bhagwat Gita , chapter 4, in which lord Krishna conveys that to eliminate evil, to help good,& ethical/Dharmic people and to re-establish Dharma, HE emerges in every Yuga.

पवित्राणाय साधूनाम विनाशाय च दुष्कर्ताम्। धर्म सन्स्थापनाथार्य सम्भवामि युगॆ युगॆ।।

Vedic & Upanishads Era Interpretations II ( Puranic Hinduism period )

PERHAPS IN RETURN FOR CONQUEST, ARROGANCE AND SPOLIATION, INDIA WILL TEACH US THE TOLERANCE AND GENTLENESS OF THE MATURE MIND, THE QUIET CONTENT OF THE  UNACQUISITIVE  SOUL, THE CALM OF THE UNDERSTANDING SPIRIT, AND A UNIFYING, A PACIFYING LOVE FOR ALL HUMAN BEINGS.
                                                                              An American Philosopher & Historian.

Continuing the flow of thoughts from my  earlier two blogs of July 27 & August 23, 2014, let me focus  on the interpretation of Dharma and Ethical living during Puranic Hinduism period or the period of Vedanta (900 BCE-400 BCE) or the period of 108 Upanishads ( today these are around 200). While most of the Upanishads are Vedanta, some may have been formed quite late by certain sects for their convenience. Upanishads aim at obtaining final goal of life viz Moksha. In general, Upanishads reject the KARMAKANDA or salvation by means of sacrifices and other rituals taught in 4 Vedas( there are, however, some exceptions to it) AND advocate the GYANAKANDA or theory of salvation by knowledge.

This brought some shift to demands on ETHICAL LIVING since Upanishads primarily focused on DHARMA as " Human Behavior" necessary for maintaining order of things in the universe, principles that prevent chaos AND behaviors/actions necessary to sustain all life in nature, family or society. In common parlance, Dharma & Ethics now meant RIGHT WAY OF LIVING and PATH OF RIGHTEOUSNESS. Adharma & Unethical living represented immoral, unjust, wrong, unlawful,  against nature etc. The FOUR MAHAVAKYAS ( great sayings) on ATMAN and BRAHMAN of Upanishads too indirectly convey the expected focus on Dharma and Ethics from the society at that time. Let us invest a little more time in understanding the deeper hidden meaning of these FOUR GREAT SAYINGS;

प्रज्ञानम ब्रहम  PRAJNANAM BRAHMA-- Consciousness is Brahman--- AITTAREYA UPANISHAD.

अहम ब्रम्हास्मी  AHAM BRAHMAS-MI---- I am Brahma----BRIHADARANYAKA UPANISHAD.

तत् त्वम असि TAT TVAM ASI---- That thou art--- CHANDOGYA UPANISHAD.

अयम् आत्मा ब्रम्ह  AYAMATMA BRAHMA---This Atman is Brahman---MANDUKYA UPANISHAD.

Though focusing on spiritual self, yet these four great sayings of Upanishads do convey the ingredients of expected Ethics in society. Prajnanam Brahma conveys that knowledge is supreme and ETHICAL LIVING demands that we should continuously make efforts to climb upwards in this ladder of knowledge, which  will require  mind control, thought control, senses control, emotion control etc. Aham Brahmas-mi conveys  the demand of unity and absolute oneness between our own spiritual self and Supreme Self. It also tells one to lift his self to higher levels by shunning arrogance, ego, hatred, anger and cultivating humility in his behavior towards others. Tat Tvam Asi talks of introspection at one's deepest level of self--- each one of us have strong and week points and we need to be aware and tackle those before pointing fingers at others. Finally Ayam Atma Brahma conveys that individual self and the Universal Self which is pure, silent, perfect are same. It talks of  expected efforts to be made by individuals to imbibe the qualities of Universal Self into their life.

Let me now pick up few relevant learnings from Upanishads. Quoting 3/1/5 of Mundaka Upanishad;

सत्येन लम्यस्तपसा होप आत्मा सभ्यग्ज्ञानेन ब्रम्हचर्येण नित्यम् ।
अन्तःशरीरम ज्योतिर्मयो हि शुभ्रो यम पशयन्ति यतयः क्षीणदोपाः ।।

The pure Atman, whom the sinless renunciates realize, as residing within the body, can be attained by TRUTHFULNESS, SELF-CONCENTRATION, TRUE KNOWLEDGE and by DEEP CONTINENCE ( chastity of body, thought free mind, meditation ). Further, 3/1/6 of same scripture conveys सत्यमेव जयते, नान्रतम सत्येन पन्था विततो देवयान । ie. The truth alone succeeds, not the untruthful. Karamamukti can be reached by following a life of truthfulness. Quoting English translation of one relevant verse on expected ethics from ISA UPANISHAD;

        If one should desire to live in this world a hundred years, one should live performing  karmas or RIGHTEOUS DEEDS. Thus thou mayest live; there is no other way. KARMA here means actions performed without selfish motive and thus speaks of expected ethics. Another Prime Upanishad ' Katha Upanishad " focuses on SELF as most powerful entity in the mankind to connect with ATMAN. Part II.20 of this scripture (English Translation) says;

The self is subtler than the subtle; greater than the great; it dwells in the heart of each living being. He, who is free from desire and free from grief, with mind and senses tranquil, beholds the glory of the Atman. Another quote from same scripture states;

He, who has not turned away from evil conduct, whose senses are uncontrolled, who is not tranquil and whose mind is not at rest, can never attain the ATMAN, even by knowledge.

Another Prime Upanishad " Kena Upanishad " conveys importance of TAPAS (practice of control of body, mind and senses ), DAM AM ( subjugation of senses ) and KARMA ( right performance of prescribed actions ) in human life. In Chhandogya Upanishad, the philosophical aspects of ETHICAL LIVING have been explained by sage Sanatkumara to sage Narada. Quoting English translation of a few relevant lines;

Speech is above none.Without speech who could determine right, wrong, good, evil, pleasant or unpleasant? Worship speech. Mind is above speech. Mind is self. Mind is world. Mind is spirit. Worship mind.Will is above mind. Everything lives in will. Actions will because speech wills. World wills because actions will. Worship will.Meditation is above mind's substance. The greatness of great comes from meditation. Wisdom is above meditation. Through wisdom, we understand Vedas, rituals, good, evil, pleasant, unpleasant etc.

Even the PEACE PRAYERS in Upanishads indirectly convey the expected ethics in society. Quoting PEACE PRAYER in Taittireeya Upanishad ;

May the Sun bless us! May the night bless us! May speech bless us! May the all prevalent bless us! Welcome spirit! Welcome life! Truth shall be on my lips and truth in my thoughts! May truth protect me ; protect my teacher; protect us both! May Peace & Peace & Peace be everywhere.
Another quote from Taittireeya Upanishad conveys ;

Do your duty, learn & teach; Speak truth, learn & teach; Meditate, learn & teach; Control senses, learn & teach; Control mind, learn & teach; Be hospitable, learn & teach; Be humane, learn & teach; Serve the family, learn & teach; Educate your children, learn & teach--- and so on. Everywhere the emphasis given is on KARMA, TRUTH, AUSTERITY, CONTROL OF SENSES & MIND as well as ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE AND SHARING. These have been spelled out as requirements of expected ethics, both at individual level as well as at social level.

Vedas & Upanishads , do as well convey the admonition , the advice on ETHICAL CONDUCT;

Give with faith; if you lack faith, give nothing. Give in proportion to your means. Give with courtesy.Give as the God fearing give. Give to the deserving. He, who gives with purity, gets purity in return;He, who gives with passion gets passion in return; He, who gives with ignorance in return, gets ignorance in return.

Before I end the blog, I would like to share two relevant quotes from sacred scripture SHIVSAMHITA formulated on the basis of Yogapadesh by Lord Shiva to Devi Parvati. Although the ethical requirements mentioned are for succeeding in Yogasidhi and higher knowledge, yet it indirectly lays down the essentials for Ethical Living.

मिथ्यावादरतानाम च तथा निष्ठुरभाषिणाम । गुरू सन्तोषहीनानाम न सिद्धि स्यात्कदाचन् ।
Those, who speak lies and harsh words and those who do not respect & please their Guru, can never achieve knowledge or perfection.

फलिष्यतीतिविश्वास सिद्धे प्रथम- लक्षणम । दिव्तीय श्रद्धया युक्तम, तृतीयम गुरूपूजनम ।
चतुर्थे समताभावम पन्चमे इन्दि्रय निग्रहम । षष्ठम च प्रमिताहारम, सप्तम   नैव विघते ।
Six essential requirements in a man who wants to achieve knowledge and perfection in life are;

1. Belief in Gyan, Knowledge, Yoga and its benefits.
2. Respectful  to Rules, Conduct, Principles and Practices.
3. Respect, Faith and Worshiping of Guru-- the Knowledge Provider.
4. Equanimity towards all mankind.
5. Control on Senses even while living in household eg. sweet in speech,  control on aggression, non hatred, non jealousy, non violence .
6. Controlled limited food with high ethical value.

We shall continue to explore the knowledge on this theme of great sages of that time in my subsequent blogs focusing on great epics Mahabharata by sage Ved Vyas, Bhagwat Gita as well as Ramayana by Sage Valmiki before picking up threads on Dharma and Ethical Life by Lord Mahavira ( Jainism) and Siddhartha Gautama ( Buddhism). Let me end the blog on a great inspiring message from Swami Vivekananda;

THE HUMAN SOUL IS PURE AND OMNISCIENT. VEDANTA TEACHES MEN TO HAVE FAITH IN THEMSELVES FIRST--- NOT BELIEVING THE GLORY OF YOUR OWN SOUL IS WHAT VEDANTA CALLS ATHEISM.

Vedic & Upanishads era interpretations-I

The Religion based on Vedas, the Sanatana Dharma or Vedika Dharma, is the oldest of all living religions and stands unrivaled in the depth and splendor of its philosophy, while it yields to none in the purity of its ethical teachings, and in the flexibility and varied adaptation of its rites and ceremonies. It is adapted to every human need and ---.

                       Annie Besant & Bhagwan Das--Sanatana Dharma 1898.

Continuing the flow of thoughts from my earlier Blog dated July 27, 2014, let me now humbly explore as to what construed Dharma and Ethical living as well as Adharma during the period of around 1500 BCE- 150 BCE. While the exact chronology of time period is difficult to be assigned, the period appears as 1200 BCE-900 BCE for Rigveda, 900 BCE-500 BCE for later Vedas and early Upanishads( a collection of Vedic texts known as Vedantas or the end of Vedas), Dharmasutra and Dharamsastra texts of around 700 BCE-100 BCE. There  have also been a great surge in the interpretation of Dharma and Ethical living during the periods of Lord Mahavira and Siddhartha Gautama ( 550 BCE-470 BCE ).

Several sages, some of whom unheard of by many of us, have been spreading the message of Dharma and fighting Adharma during this period. A few to name will include Sage Narada, Sage Thirumoolar, Rishi Agasthya-- one of seven Saptarishis, Rishi  Vishwamitra, Sage Vashishta, Sage Ved Vyas-- the author of  great  epic Mahabharata, Sage Shukadeva Goswami-- son of sage Ved Vyas and famous narrator of Sheree Bhagwat Purana, Maharishi Valmiki-- the author of Ramayana and couple of female seers including Seer Maitrayi-- wife of sage Yajnavalkya, Seer Lopamudra-- wife of sage Agasthya. Besides, can we ever forget the correct  interpretation of Dharma and Ethics, conveyed by none other than Lord Krishna, Himself, in sacred scripture Bhagwat Gita and during war of Mahabharata?

In RIGVEDA and ATHARVEDA, the word appears as DHARMAN, meaning SUSTAIN ER or SUPPORTER.

1. The world is upheld by Dharma. पृथिविम धर्मना धृर्तिम ।
2. Dharma is called because it holds up the entire creation. धरानाद धर्मामितयाहूह ।

International research work carried out in Vedas have identified several meanings of Dharma in those times including law, order, duty, customs,quality and model, most of which were linked to Varnas and Ashrams.
In ancient MYTHS OF HINDUISM, Dharma meant adoring and submitting to Cosmic Laws, the rules that created Universe from chaos based on prevalent philosophies at that time. Dharma also meant performing Rituals to please and appease scores of deities of EARTH, HEAVEN and COSMOS. It is difficult to comment on the prevalent laws and practices except an opinion that every MYTH is not MITHYA. Myth is one form of TRUTH ( not universal SAT), prevalent in the mind of a sect or a group of people at a point of time and within a framework of available knowledge and challenges.

ETHICS in VEDAS are based on SATYA and Rta ( ऋतम )--that which is properly joined;order,rule,truth.While Satya was considered the principle of integration rooted in the ABSOLUTE, Rta was taken as expression of SATYA, which coordinates and regulates the operation of universe and mankind in general. Conformity with Rta enabled progress and hence considered Dharma, while its violation led to punishment and hence considered ADHARMA. In RIGVEDA, the focus is on Rta, and the word appears around 400 times in the text.

In one of the indirect interpretations on virtues for ethical living from VEDIC LITERATURE, conveyed by Teacher Guru PRAJAPATI to his three disciples--Gods, Asuras and Men, based on the heavenly word "DA" (दा).( Reference BRHADARANYAKA UPANISHADS---5.2.3);
दा--दाता-------Be Charitable or DAN AM---conveyed to men to share wealth.
दा--दाम्यता---Be Self Controlled or DAM AM---conveyed to Gods to control their arrogance and show of power.
दा--दयाध्वम--Be Compassionate or DAY AM--- conveyed to Asuras to show compassion towards others.

Dharma and Ethics have been closely interwoven in most of the text and hymns of four Vedas, whether related to prayers, offerings, sacrifices or even appeasements. Indirect references to EXPECTED ETHICS from individuals and society in general are clearly visible in some of the Vedic Hymns( Quoting English translation);

"MAY I BE PLEASING TO SPEECH;PLEASING TO THE LORD OF THE SPEECH;O DIVINE, PLACE IN ME THE SWEETNESS OF SPEECH--- (iii--1.10, Kanda III, Prapathaka 1, YAJURVEDA )."

"MAY THE DIVINE GANDHARVA, WHO PURIFIETH THOUGHT, PURIFY OUR THOUGHT; MAY THE LORD OF SPEECH TODAY MAKE SWEET OUR UTTERANCES--- (iv--1.1 g,  Kanda iv, YAJURVEDA)."

"UNITY OF HEART AND UNITY OF MIND, FREEDOM FROM HATRED, DO I PROCURE FROM YOU."
"THE SON SHALL BE DEVOTED TO HIS FATHER, BE OF THE SAME MIND WITH HIS MOTHER; THE WIFE SHALL SPEAK SWEET WORDS TO HER HUSBAND.(III.30--- ATHARVEDA, under charms to secure harmony.)"

"AS THE BOWSTRING FROM THE BOW, THUS DO I TAKE OFF THY ANGER FROM THY HEART, SO THAT HAVING BECOME OF THE SAME MIND, WE SHALL  ASSOCIATE LIKE FRIENDS. (vi 42.1 ATHARVEDA )."

In fact, in verse 11 of chapter 5 of BRIHADARANYAKA Upanishads on the subject of "The interdependence of Created Objects ", Sage Yajnavalkya conveys to his Seer wife Maitreyi--

DHARMA ( RIGHTEOUSNESS) IS THE HONEY ( EFFECT) OF ALL BEINGS AND ALL BEINGS ARE THE HONEY( EFFECT) OF THIS DHARMA. Likewise, the bright, immortal being who is in his DHARMA, and the bright, immortal being identified with the DHARMA in the body are both HONEY. The knowledge of this self is the means to immortality.

While the expanded interpretation of Dharma and Ethical living in the period of 108 Upanishads or PURANIC HINDUISM shall be shared in my next blog,let me first discuss its interpretation in DHARMSASTRAS--the texts on HINDU RELIGIOUS LAWS compiled by great Hindu Seers and Philosophers of ancient times for Ethical Conduct and Behavior, both at Personal level and at Community level. It comprised of duties of an ideal householder as well as for those practitioners of Hindu religion, with detailed classification covering four Varnas and Ashrams. Some of these Dharmsastras texts have been compiled under the names of MANUSMRTI or MANAV DHARM SHASTRA attributed to legendary first man and law giver Manu, YAJNAVALKYASMRTI covering model legal procedure, penances and path to Moksha, NARADASMRTI (judicial text par excellence), VISNUSMRTI focusing on Bhakti tradition, Tirthas etc and many more. Broadly , the contents of Dharmsastra texts have been classified into;

ACARA--Rules and Practices pertaining to daily rituals, life cycle rites and other duties.
VYAVAHARA--Rules on truthful speech, right conduct, violations, disputes, Rajdharma, nyaya, 18 Hindu titles of law, court issues etc.
PRAYASUTA--Rules on renunciation, categories of sins, Karma, Pilgrimages, penances, vratas, utsavas, santi etc.

Let me turn the pages of  MANUSMRTI, which is a comprehensive compilation of laws covering all  facets of life. Though the focus of most of laws is on BRAHMANS, yet it covers duties and obligations of all four Varnas. Quoting Manusmrti, verse 2.160;

य़स्य वाच्मनसी शु देू सभ्यग्गुणे च सर्वदा, सवै सर्वम अवाप्रोति वॆदाऩ्त उपगऩ्त फलम् । 
He, whose speech and thoughts are pure and ever perfectly guarded, gains the whole reward, conferred by Vedanta.

सन्तोषम पऱम् अास्थाय़ सुखार्थी सन्यतो भवेत् ।( Manusmrti verse 4.12 ). 
He who desires happiness must strive after a perfectly contented disposition and self control.

In another verse 4.170, UNRIGHTEOUS CONDUCT has been spelled out;
अधार्मिको नरोयो हि यस्य चअप्यनृ तम धनम्, हिन्सारत्श् चयो नित्यम नइहअसौ सुखम एधते । 
Neither a man who lives unrighteously, nor he, who acquires wealth by telling falsehoods, nor he who delights in giving injury to / hurting others, ever attain happiness in the world.

Verse 8.14 and 8.15 of Manusmrti talk of Ethical living in society and justice. Quoting these,
यत्र धर्मो हाधर्मेण सत्य़म यत्रअनृ तेन च, हन्यते प्रेक्षमाणाऩाम हतास् तत्र सभासदः ।
Where justice is destroyed by injustice, or truth by falsehood, while the judges look on, there they shall also be destroyed.

धर्म एवम हतो हन्ति धर्मो रक्षति रक्षितः । 
Justice being violated destroys; justice being preserved preserves. Another verse 12.33 of same script conveys Qualities of Darkness;
लोभः स्वपने अधृतिौः र्य नास्तिक्य़म भिऩ्नवृतिता, याचिष्णुता प्रमादश च तापसम गुणलक्षणम् ।
Covetousness(greediness), sleepiness, pusillanimity(timidity or cowardice), cruelty, atheism, leading an evil life, habit of socializing favors and inattentiveness are the marks of Qualities of darkness.

PARASARASMRTI is another ancient script by Maharishi Ved Vyas, also author of Mahabharata and scribe of Vedas and Purana. Two verses from this script conveying expectations from Ethical Living are:

चतुर्णामपि वर्णानाभाचारो धर्मपालकः, आचार भ्रष्ट देहानाम भवेदधर्मः परान्मुखः।
A blameless life that fosters righteousness, is what is proper for all castes. Righteousness turns its back to those whose bodies are defiled by a blamable life. It talks of desirable conduct, character & behavior.

सऩ्धया स्नानम जपो होमो देवतातिथि पूजनम, आतिथ्य़म वैश्वदेवम च षटकर्मापि दिने दिनेः ।
Ablution and prayer, recitation of sacred Mantras, offerings, worship of Gods, hospitality to unexpected guests and offerings made in the name of Visvadevam are the six duties to be performed each day.

Well, these sacred scriptures had scores of verses on expected conduct, character and behavior by different Varnas to lead an ethical Life in society. There have been few contradictions like differentiation in punishments to different Varnas, made as laws, or several other rituals prescribed by these Dharamsastras, difficult to be digested in today's context. May be, these were essential to support and sustain the society and the governing system at that point of time since Vedas had communicated Dharma as sustain-er or supporter. These scriptures did bind the society into, may be then, a righteous framework of Dharma and Ethical living.

I have no intention of summing up the ingredients of Dharma or Ethical living at this stage. It does appear that while Dharma talked of sustenance, bindings, customs, rituals, rules, nyaya or justice, ethical living conveyed Satya, self control, compassion, contentment, charity, right speech & thoughts, mind control, non lust, acquisition of knowledge, non violence,belief in God and religion, good behavior towards guests, avoidance of greed, a blameless life and conformance to social laws. There also needs more clarity as to whether PERSONAL ETHICS were adequate to meet the requirements of SOCIAL ETHICS as well. As we go along, more and more clarity on evolving patterns is expected to emerge. Let me close this blog by an inspiring quote;

I AM PROUD TO BELONG TO A RELIGION WHICH HAS TAUGHT THE WORLD BOTH TOLERANCE AND UNIVERSAL ACCEPTANCE.

                                                                                   SWAMI VIVEKANANDA 1893.