Hinduism insists not on religious conformity but on a spiritual and ethical outlook of life. Hinduism is not a sect but a fellowship of all who accept the law of right and earnestly look for the truth.
Dr S Radhakrishnan
The classical " Golden Age of Hinduism' refers to close to the period of history, 400 BCE - 500 CE, more or less coinciding with the period of famous Gupta empire. We shall try to understand the philosophies and messages propagated by some of the prominent philosophers of this period restricting to my theme covering Dharma and Ethical living. Six orthodox schools, some extending the thoughts of Vedas as well as Upanishads and while a few others questioning the contents of some of these scriptures, flourished in this period. These schools of thoughts were namely Sankhya, Purva Mimansa, Uttara Mimansa or Vedanta, Nyaya, Vaiseshika and Yoga. We shall humbly examine some of the messages on Dharma and Ethical Living brought out by these schools of thoughts in this blog, which is 6th in the series.
The central aim of these schools of thoughts is elucidation or illumination on the nature of DHARMA, which at that point of time, was broadly understood as set of rituals, obligations as well as prerogatives to be performed properly. Brahmsutras of Shri Badarayana ( 500 BCE-400 BCE ) in Uttara Mimansa, were intended as memory aids to long discussions on several topics, including essence of relevant arguments and helped systematize the thoughts of Upanishads. It opens with a verse " ATHADO BRAHMA JIGNASA " ie. to focus on systematic exploration of Brahman. Several philosophers/ commentators including S/Sh Sankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja and others have clarified the subject on the basis of their understanding. As per Sh Sankara, Brahman is Attribute-less, Immutable and Pure Intelligence. However, to Sh Ramanuja and others, Brahman is an essentially personal God possessing infinite benign attributes. But, to all of them, Brahman, the world and the soul are all realities.
My understanding and interpretation is that since Dharma is Karma, it needs to be performed effectively by proper use of knowledge. Even the negation ie what is not seen gives us inputs, needs to be considered. Karma can not be stopped and so is the communication on what is right and what is wrong for the society. In fact, using knowledge through various means as stated above helped in correct interpretation and understanding of Dharma.
Sankhya philosophy founded by Sage Kapila regards ignorance as the root cause of all suffering. Due to ignorance,one of the reality of universe, Purusha ( eternal, pure consciousness) identifies itself with Manas, Ego-sense and Ma-hat, which are products of the second reality of universe Prakarti. Such false identification leads to suppression of DHARMA in one's life and eventual progression towards unethical living.
Nyaya school of philosophy is explained in texts known as Nyaya Sutras of Sh A K Sapada Gautama in around 200 CE. While it also talked of four sources of knowledge to be used for Dharma based living namely Perception, Inference, Comparison and Testimony; it did talk of sources of invalid knowledge like Memory ( स्मृति), Doubt (सऩ्शय), Error (अशुद्धता) and Hypothetical reasoning (तर्क). It emphasized on removal of false knowledge which supports growth of unethical living in society. Only true knowledge leads to salvation. Vaisheshika school founded by Sage Kannada considered Perception and Inference as the means of valid knowledge and over the centuries merged with Nyaya school of thought.
Yoga school was founded by Maharishi Patanjali and has a strong influence on Ethical Living. It talked of अष्टाऩ्ग योग, conveyed in verse 29 of ch 2, Sadhna Pada of Patanjali Yoga Sutras.
यमनियमासन प्राणायाम प्रत्याहारधारणाध्यान समाधयोष्टाव अऩ्गानि । ie यम, नियम,अासन, प्राणायाम, प्रत्याहार, धारणा, ध्यान, समाधि are the eight limbs of Yoga which help in purifying and strengthening of body. However,human beings throughout the universe, also face several hurdles in this path due to the weaknesses of the mind like Avid-ya ( wrong notions of the world ), Asmita ( wrong notions of one self ), Raga ( craving and attachment to sensory objects & affections), Dives-ha ( likes & hatred for objects/ persons and Abinivesha ( the love of life ). In order to spread the roots of Dharma and Ethical living, efforts thru introspection, acquiring knowledge and meditation be constantly made to eradicate these mental obstacles. Samadhi Pada Sutras 33-41 convey ways to cultivate attitudes of friendliness, compassion and calmness in-spite of one being in disturbed state.
Yama ( Ahimsa,, Truthfulness, Non Stealing, Non Lust and Aparigraha) and Niyama (Purity & Cleanliness, Contentment, Austerity, Study & Pursuit of knowledge and Devotion to Guru ) have been briefly explained by me in my first Blog titled " THE EVOLVING PATTERNS " for ETHICAL LIVING. Reinforcing these, let me quote verse 30-32 of Sadhna Pada of Patanjali Yoga Sutras.
अहिन्सासत्यास्ते य ब्रम्हचर्यापरिग्रहा यमाः ।ie non killing, truthfulness, non stealing, continence and non receiving are called Yamas.
जातिदेशकालसमयान वच्छिनाः सार्वन्भौमा महाव्रतम । ie for ethical living, every soul, irrespective of nation, country or status must practice these Yamas and Niyamas.
शौचसन्तोष तपः स्वाध्यायेश्र्वरप्रणिधानानि नियमाः । ie internal and external purification, contentment, mortification, self study of ethical scriptures including those on God are the Niyamas.
Further, verse 36 of same Pada emphasize the importance of truthfulness for Ethical Living.
सत्यप्रतिष्ठयाम क्रियाफलाश्रयत्वम् । ie by practicing truthfulness, a person acquires the powers of realizing the fruits of KARMAS for himself and others. Another verse 42 of same Pada says;
सन्तोषाद् अनुत्तम सुखलाभः ie from contentment, one gets happiness.
Verse 24 of Vibhuti Pada of Patanjali Yoga Sutra emphasize the importance of friendship.
मैत्रयादिषु बलानि । ie one gets strength by concentrating on good friendships in life.
Well, one can go on digging reservoirs of knowledge on Dharma and Ethical Living from these sacred scriptures written by eminent philosophers. While DHARMA, through and through, focused on performing duties and obligations or prescribed Karma s, Ethical living called for restraints and observations in life. These scriptures further strengthened the importance of acquiring knowledge, applying judicious discrimination and principles of justice for Dharma based ethical living. This was a very valuable period from ethical growth point of view . We shall throw some more light on the messages of some more philosophers of this Golden Period Of Hinduism in the next blog. Let me end the blog on a beautiful quote by Saint Dnyaneshwara , who preached universal Dharma with harmonious blend of Sadhna, Seva, Bhakti, Swadharma and Vishwadharma.
May the darkness of ignorant disappear,
May the universe see the sun of self consciousness,
May whatsoever aspirations of those be fulfilled,
Of all living beings.
